1. phenomenology - it seeks to describe the data, or the "given", of the immediate experience. Study of human awareness
and perception. The object or event is not as important as the way it is perceived.

2. phenomenal field - it refers to the total sum of experiences. Emphasis is on the individual's perception of reality. The
best standpoint to understand the individual is that of the individual.

3. actualization - organisms inherently tend to maintain themselves and to strive for enhancement.

4. self - an outgrowth of certain aspects of individual experiencing; the concept of "me."

5. self-concept - a portion of the phenomenal field that has become differentiated and is composed of perceptions and
values of "I" or "me." .

6. symbolized experience - it is accepted into consciousness, perceived, and organized into a relationship with the self.

7. congruence - it exists when a person's symbolized experiences reflect all of the actual experiences of the organism; a
state of consistency or harmony.

8. incongruence - it exists when a person's symbolized experiences do not reflect all of the actual experiences of the
organism due to denial or distortion.

9. positive regard - a need to be loved and accepted.

10. unconditional positive regard - positive regard that is not contingent on any specific behaviors.

11. conditional positive regard - positive regard that is given only under certain circumstances.

12. conditions of worth - stipulations imposed by others that become internalized.

13. (positive) self-regard - viewing the self favorably.

14. subception - a discriminatory evaluating response of the organism that precedes conscious perception.

15. nondirective therapy - Rogers' initial formulation of therapy whose course is primarily determined by the patient.

16. client-centered psychotherapy - the focus is on the releasing of an already existing capacity in a potentially competent
individual.

17. Q-sort technique - it was developed by William Stevenson; the test taker is given a set of 100 cards that have statements
on them, and the taker is asked to sort the cards into the order of his or her real self and then into the order of his or her
ideal self.

1. According to the holistic, or organismic, viewpoint, the organism is a unified whole, functioning according to laws that
cannot be found in the parts of which it is comprised. The organism has one sovereign drive, that of actualization.

2. The humanistic viewpoint sees people as neither inherently "bad" (psychoanalysis) nor robotic (behaviorism), but as
essentially "good" and having the potential for healthy and creative growth. Humanism stands for an open- minded
approach and methods, and for the exploration of new aspects of human behavior.

3. The two important enduring aspects of personality are the organism and the self. The organism is the locus of all
experience. The self is a portion of the phenomenal field, which is the totality of experience. The self is an ever- changing
entity, always adapting to life's circumstances.

4. Congruence is a state of consistency or harmony (real self and ideal self largely overlap). Incongruence is a state of
discrepancy or disharmony (real self and ideal self are largely separate).

5. The organism has one motivating force: the actualizing tendency.

6. Discrepancies between the organism and the self arise out of others' evaluations (conditions of worth). Self- alienation
can lead to self-destructive behavior.

7. The split between self and organism can be prevented if parents raise children with love and affection. It can be healed if
therapy provides the unconditional positive regard to the person who lacked this acceptance in childhood.

8. It is congruence between the organism and the self that determines maturity, adjustment, and mental health. Congruence
requires the continual revision of one's values. It also makes people more understanding of others and more tolerant of
others' behaviors. By being congruent, accepting and empathic, the therapist sets the stage for change.

9. Carl Rogers's theory of personality owes much to his unique, person-centered, earlier, client-centered, approach to
psychotherapy. In this approach, which stresses the therapist's congruence, unconditional and warm acceptance of the client
as he or she is, and empathy.

10. Rogers pioneered in studying the nature and processes of psychotherapy by tape or video recording therapy session.

11. Rogers has used content analysis to study the changes in a person's self-concept that occur in therapy.

12. Rating scale have been used to study the quality of the therapeutic relationship. The evidence suggests that clients and
independent judges sometimes assess this relationship more accurately than do therapists.

13. Q-technique is used to study people's ideas about themselves (their self concept). Defensiveness, which derives from
the need to look good to oneself and to others, may affect Q-sort studies.

14. Rogers' theory has been criticized primarily for insisting that conscious self-report is adequate to reveal the person,
and for continuing to hold this view despite the problems caused by the phenomenon of defensive behavior. Rogers'
theory, however, has stimulated a great deal of investigatory activity. And Rogers broke important ground in initiating
research on the psychotherapeutic process.

1. motivation - term for the reduction of tension by satisfying deficit states.

2. D-needs - deficiency needs, e.g., hunger, thirst, etc.

3. metamotivation - growth tendencies within the organism.

4. B-needs - being needs, arise out of the organism's need to self-actualize and fulfill its potential.

5. hierarchy of needs - five needs in order of their strength (top = weakest; bottom = strongest):
self actualization
self-esteem
belonging and love
safety
physiological needs

6. physiological needs - needs related to physical survival, e.g., food, sleep, sex.

7. safety needs - requirements for an orderly, stable, and predictable world. Normal functioning adults have generally
satisfied this need. It can be seen in neurotics and children. They need order to their lives. Too much freedom is scary to
them.

8. belonging and love needs - seeking affectionate and intimate relationships with other people, needing to be accepted into
certain reference groups. This type of love is more than just sex. It must be a healthy giving relationship where the
individual is loved and accepted.

9. self-esteem needs - need for respect from others and the need for self esteem, which entails competence, confidence,
mastery, achievement, independence, and freedom. Respect from others entails recognition, acceptance, status, and
appreciation.

10. self-actualization needs - they may emerge if all other needs have been consistently and sufficiently met. The individual
has to have the courage to choose it. Unique and vary from person to person. In general it is the desire to fulfill one's
highest potential. This is referred to as living on B level.

11. self-actualizing persons - they fulfill themselves and do the best that they are capable of doing. They possess the
following characteristics:

       awareness - aware of inner rightness of themselves, of nature, and of the peak experiences of life.

       freshness of appreciation - appreciate again and again the basics of life.

       peak experience - intensification of any experience to the degree that there is a loss of transcendence of
       self. Experiences that are often termed religious or mystic. During a peak experience a person feels not
       only an expansion of self but meaningfulness and unity of life.

       honesty - know their feelings and trust them. They can trust a wide range of feelings - love, anger, humor--
       present in interpersonal relationships.

       philosophical sense of humor - the ability to laugh at the ridiculousness of the human situation. Not at
       other's expense, just a joke on all humanity.

       social interest - deep feeling of kinship with humanity. It is similar to Alder's Gemeinschaftsgefühl,
       which means community feeling or one's identification with humanity.

       interpersonal relations - sought by self-actualizers. They have a close circle of friends who are selectively
       chosen for their being as opposed to superficial love. They react to the behavior rather than the other
       person (Rogers unconditional positive regard).

       democratic character structure - free of prejudice, tolerant, and accepting of all people regardless of their
       background.

       freedom - allows them to withdraw from the chaos that surrounds them. Free to be creative and
       spontaneous.

       detachment - displayed in high degrees. It allows higher degrees of concentration.

       need for privacy - enjoyment of solitude.

       autonomous and independent - motivated by growth rather than deficiency. Choose freely and govern
       themselves and assume responsible for their actions.

       creativity - without exception, self actualizers display creativity in what they do.

       spontaneous - free to be whatever they are at any given moment.

       problem-centered - committed to tasks that must be accomplished: does not blame others. Not caught in
       the petty or trivial aspects of life.

       resistance to enculturation - they are in harmony with culture but remain separate from it. They are
       independent in thought and behavior.

1. Maslow, a founder of the "third force" in psychology, stressed the study of the positive, healthy, creative aspects of
human beings.

2. According to Maslow, our basic needs, capacities, and tendencies are good not evil, and healthy development means
actualizing these tendencies. It is denial or frustration of this essential nature that leads people to develop psychopathology.

3. The human being's needs are arranged in a hierarchy: Each set can be fulfilled only when the preceding sets have been
(relatively) satisfied. Physiological needs must be satisfied first, followed by the needs for safety, love and belongingness,
and self-actualization. Esteem needs may be for one's own self-esteem or for the esteem of others. The need for
self-actualization subsumes 17 metaneeds, or being- values which involve knowing, understanding, and aesthetic concerns
among others.

4. Metaneeds involve the positive rather than the negative use of cognitive capacities; they involve seeking happiness and
fulfillment rather then avoiding pain. The metaneeds are equally potent; any one may be substituted for another.

5. Self-actualization is rather rare because people have difficulty balancing pride (hubris - insolence derived from excessive
pride) and humility; because they fear the responsibilities of being leaders; because they are jealous of "great" others and
feel less worthy (e.g., fear of becoming aware of their own weaknesses); and because intense pleasure or happiness may
become almost unendurable. Society can also impede self-actualization or encourage it. Schools should help satisfy
children's basic psychological needs of security, belongingness, and esteem, and should teach them how to self-actualize.

6. The order in which needs are satisfied may vary, and one need does not have to be 100 percent fulfilled for another
higher need to achieve some satisfaction.

7. Self-actualizing people exhibit the following characteristics: They perceive reality accurately and fully; they demonstrate
a greater acceptance of themselves, others, and/or nature in general; they exhibit spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness;
they tend to be concerned with problems rather than with themselves; they have a need for privacy; they are autonomous
and tend to be independent of their environment and culture; they show a continued freshness and appreciation; they tend
to identify with all of humanity; they develop interpersonal relations with only a few people; they tend to have democratic
values; they have a strong ethical sense; they have a healthy sense of humor; they have periodic mystic or peak experiences.

8. The peak experience is a mystical experience of intense feeling and sensations, both psychological and physical.
After-effects may include such things as change in one's view of the world and one's relations with others and the release
of creativity.

9. D-realm and B-realm are necessary for survival. When deficiency needs are satisfied, being needs, or metaneeds,
become prominent.

10. Maslow has been criticized for being unscientific and religious-like in his writings. In spite of these criticisms,
Maslow's theory has been used by large numbers ofpsychologists, educators, and business people. Maslow took a position
essentially opposite Freud's. For Freud, given complete freedom, humans would become sexually promiscuous and
aggressive. For Maslow, they would create a loving, harmonious, and nonaggressive society.

1. existentialism - movement in contemporary philosophy and psychology that studies the meaning of existence. It focuses
on the human being as he or she is becoming and emerging.

2. essence - in philosophy, the unchangeable principles and laws that govern us.

3. powerlessness - a pervasive conviction that the individual cannot do anything effective in the face of enormous cultural,
social, and economic problems.

4. anxiety - apprehension cued off by a threat to some value that the individual holds essential to his or her existence as a
person.

5. ontological - in metaphysics, the nature of being, what characterizes the human being, e.g., awareness of one's mortality,
love, anxiety, guilt.

6. daimonic - any natural function which has the potential to take over the whole person, e.g., anger, sex.

7. freedom - it entails openness, readiness to grow, flexibility, and an ability to change in the pursuit of greater human
values.

8. destiny - vital design of the universe expressed in each one of us. The extreme of destiny is death.

9. Dasein - being there as opposed to anywhere else in the world at any given moment in time, e.g., "Who am I? Where am
I going?"

10. Umwelt - the physical environment (nature) and how one relates to it.

11. Mitwelt - with the world, social relations.

12. Eigenwelt - how one relates to oneself, being authentic.

13. thrownness - circumstances one cannot avoid and have to deal with, e.g., the fact that you are born into a certain race, a
certain sex, etc.

1. Existential psychology traces its roots to existentialism and phenomenology: Existential psychologists study human
existence through phenomenological analysis (focusing on one's subjective reality).

2. Swiss existentialists, Ludwig Binswanger and Medard Boss, the chief architects of modern existential personality
psychology, were greatly influenced by the German philosopher Martin Heidegger. They in turn influenced May.

3. Existential psychologists rebelled against scientific determinism, rejecting causality, mind-body dualism, and the concept
of the unconscious. It also avoids theory and the manipulation and control of human beings for scientific purposes.

4. Existential psychology places great emphasis on human beings' freedom of choice.

5. Dasein, or being-in-the-world, is the whole of the person's existence. It is understood by studying the phenomena of
immediate experience (phenomenology).

6. The person's mode of being-in-the-world is expressed in three world-regions: The Umwelt, or physical environment; the
Mitwelt, or human (social) environment; and the Eigenwelt, or psychological and bodily self.

7. The world-design is the person's all-encompassing mode of being in the world. It includes the person's reactions and the
kinds of traits he or she will develop. A person's world-design can be broad and varied, or it may be narrow and
constricted.

8. The person achieves authenticity by trying to realize all the possibilities of his or her existence (this a goal to strive for,
although it is unreachable).

9. Although human beings have freedom of choice, they are limited by their ground of existence, or their thrownness.
Shutting oneself off from one's ground of existence leads to inauthenticity and guilt.

10. Unhappiness and distress are caused by unwise choices and by existential guilt, the inescapable failure to fulfill one's
every possibility.

11. The dread of Non-Being is another inescapable accompaniment of human existence.

12. Existence is always in the process of becoming: The person's goal is to become completely human, authentic. Refusal
to become so leads to maladjustment (neurosis and psychosis).

13. Existential psychologists have been criticized for being unscientific and closer to philosophy than psychology.

1. character - evaluation based on a moral code of behavior.

2. temperament - biological component of emotionality in one's personality.

3. type - way to categorize people, e.g., aggressive vs. friendly.

4. trait - in Allport's theory, a determining tendency to respond that represents the ultimate reality of psychological
organization. A trait is a neuropsychic structure that influences behavior. It is not a habit (a specific mode of responding) nor an attitude (e.g., one's likes and dislikes).

5. common trait - hypothetical traits that allow us to compare individuals according to certain shared dimensions.

6. personal dispositions - traits that are unique to an individual.

7. cardinal disposition - a personal disposition so pervasive that almost every behavior of an individual seems to be
influenced by it.

8. central dispositions - characteristic tendencies of an individual.

9. secondary dispositions - more specific, focused tendencies of an individual that tend to be situational.

10. proprium - a term that refers to the central experiences of self-awareness that a person has as he or she grows and
moves forward.

11. propriate functions - the functions of the proprium.

12. development of the proprium:

     bodily self - a propriate function that entails coming to know one's body limits.

     self-identity - a propriate function that entails an awareness of inner sameness and continuity.

     self-esteem - a propriate function that entails feelings of pride as one develops the ability to do things.

     self-extension - a propriate function that entails a sense of possession.

     self-image - a propriate function that entails a sense of the expectations of others and its comparison with one's own
behavior.

     self as rational coper - a propriate function that entails the perception of one's self as an active problem solving agent.

     propriate striving - a propriate function that entails projection of long term purposes and goals and development of a
plan to attain them.

13. functional autonomy - a concept that present motives are not necessarily tied to the past but may be free of earlier
motivation. It has two components:

       preservative functional autonomy - acts or behaviors that are repeated even though they may have lost their original
       function.

       propriate functional autonomy - acquired interests, values, attitudes, intentions, and lifestyles that are directed from
       the proprium and are genuinely free of earlier motivations.

14. Allport posited six criteria of maturity:

        extension of the sense of self - mature adults genuinely participate in important realms of human achievement. They are interested in others and consider the welfare of others as important as their own.

        warm relating of self to others - mature adults are able to relate immediately to other persons in appropriate
situations. They are compassionate and able to tolerate many differences in human beings.

        emotional security (self acceptance) - mature people are able to accept themselves and their emotional states. Their
emotions, even though they are not always pleasant, do not lead them into impulsive acts or actions that hurt others.

        realistic perception, skills, and assignments - mature adults do not need to create a fantasy world, but live in the "real world." They are problem solvers and have developed the appropriate skills to complete their assigned tasks and work.

        self-objectification (insight and humor) - self-insight is difficult to acquire. Mature people know what they can do,
what they cannot do, and what they ought to do. They have no need to deceive themselves or other people. An important
corollary of insight is a sense of humor. Mature individuals are able to laugh at themselves rather than feeling threatened by their human weakness. The sense of humor to which Allport refers entails recognizing the ludicrous behaviors we share with others because of our common humanity.

        unifying philosophy of life - maturity entails a clear understanding of life's goals and purposes. In the mature person, this philosophy is clearly marked and outwardly focused. The must conscience of childhood is replaced with the ought conscience of adulthood.

15. nomothetic - the approach to studying personality that considers large groups of individuals in order to infer general
variables or universal principles.

16. idiographic - the approach to studying personality that centers on understanding the uniqueness of the individual.

17. expressive behavior - an individuals manner of performing something.

1. The normal adult human being is a rational creature governed largely by conscious intentions that are rooted in the
present and the future, not in the past.

2. Personality is a dynamic phenomenon that has both psychological and physiological elements; as it grows and changes, it plays an active role in the functioning of the individual. Moreover, personality is character devalued. In other words, character indicates an evaluation on some moral code of conduct. Temperament is the emotional component of the personality.

3. Traits are neuropsychic structures that lead the person to behave in ways that are consistent over time and space: To
make similar responses to similar classes of stimuli.

4. The common trait is a characteristic shared by many people (e.g., in the American culture, people share the values of
individuality and freedom). The personal disposition is the manifestation of the common trait in a particular individual.

5. Traits have motive power, but some serve only to guide behavior already set in motion; others initiate behavior, leading the person to seek out certain situations and to behave in certain ways.

6. In rare instances, a person manifests a cardinal disposition that characterizes his or her entire life-style (e.g., Napoleon). More commonly, a person can be described by 5 to 10 central dispositions. The person is also characterized by secondary dispositions (i.e., situational), but these are less crucial to personality description.

7. The proprium is the self as object; how the self as knower is to be represented is not completely clear. The proprium is composed of seven aspects that evolve over the period that stretches from birth to adolescence: The sense of bodily self; the sense of continuing self-identity; self-esteem or pride; extension of self; the self-image; the self as rational coper; and propriate striving, which subsumes intentions, long-range purposes, and distant goals.

8. Functional autonomy holds that given activities or behaviors become ends or goals in themselves, even though they were originally engaged in for other reasons. Although many behaviors continue in adulthood to operate on the basis of simple learning principles, a measure of maturity is the degree to which one's motives have become functionally autonomous. In other words, somewhere in the course of development between infancy and adulthood, a complete transformation takes place. The motives that guide the adult's behavior are totally different from those that guide the baby's behavior.

9. The best indicators of how people will behave in the present and the future are people's intentions - their plans and goals.

10. The healthy adult is characterized by a set of organized and congruent traits whose functioning is largely conscious and rational. These traits derive their motive power from the propriate strivings; thus, to understand the adult, we must
understand his or her goals and aspirations.

11. The person is always in the process of becoming more unified. The most important unifying forces are the propriate
functions.

12. Although both idiographic and nomothetic approaches to research are important, work is needed to develop better
techniques of idiographic research.

13. Allport bridged academic and clinical psychology with his emphasis on the study of the individual case, the importance of conscious motivation, and the governing power of present and future motives. He was influential in restoring the concept of ego to favor in academic psychology, and his views have found favor with many ego psychologists and psychoanalysts.

14. Critics take Allport to task for offering a theory that lacks formal adequacy and that has thus far not generated much
research; for failing to demonstrate his central concept, that of functional autonomy; for assuming discontinuity between
animal and human, infant and adult, normal and abnormal; for insisting on the uniqueness of the personality; for giving far too little attention to the influence of social and situational factors; and for painting the human being in too positive a light.

1. factor analytic theory - Cattell uses highly objective, precise scientific methods & empirical data.

2. factor analysis - employed by Cattell and Eysenck, a procedure that correlates many variables at one time.

3. personality - for Cattell, "Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation."

                R=f(P, S)=> a response (R) is a function (f) of the person (P) and the stimulus (S).

4. surface traits - for Cattell, clusters of overt behavior responses that appear to go together.

5. source traits - for Cattell, underlying variables that determine surface manifestations.

6. L-data - for Cattell, they are derived from life records.

7. Q-data - for Cattell, they are derived from questionnaires.

8. T-data - for Cattell, information produced by "objective" tests.

9. Inductive reasoning - for Cattell, a method that begins with data collection that leads to a hypothesis.

10. Arousal theory - for Eysenck, behaviors are, in part, a function of the general state state of arousal (excitation) or
inhibition of the brain.

11. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning - for Eysenck, a method that begins with a hypothesis, which guides data collection.

Cattell:

1. Personality allows us to predict what a person will do in a given situation. It is concerned with all behavior, including
what is concrete and observable and what may only be inferred.

2. Personality is made up of traits, inferred mental structures that account for the consistency of behavior. Surface traits can be inferred from observed behaviors. Source traits can be identified only by means of factor analysis, a statistical technique for detecting underlying order in a number of variables.

3. Source traits are constitutional, residing within the person; or environmental-mold, deriving from experiences.

4. L-data, ratings by others, Q-data, self-ratings, and T-data, "objective" test results, provide the material from which three types of source traits are derived. Dynamic traits are concerned with setting the person in motion toward a goal.
Temperament traits describe the manner in which the person moves toward a goal. Ability traits describe the effectiveness with which the person moves toward the goal. Chains of subsidiation link the three types of dynamic traits: Attitudes serve sentiments and ergs; sentiments, organized structures of attitudes, serve ergs. Ergs are constitutional source traits and correspond roughly to drives. Attitudes and sentiments are environmental-mold source traits.

5. The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire assesses people on 16 factors, or traits.

6. Cattell has been criticized for spreading himself too thin over too many areas of psychology. His use of factor analysis has also been criticized for emphasizing experiment over theory; that is, for elevating what is essentially a research technique to theory.

Eysenck:

7. Intelligence is mostly inherited. His theory of personality focuses on temperament (did not include intelligence or
ability).

8. Traits are genetically influenced rather than leaned and are arranged in a hierarchy.

9. Eysenck identified three superfactors with a biological basis: Extroversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism.

10. Eysenck’s choice of personality dimensions has been criticized, and several investigators have proposed other choices. Eysenck’s theory has been considered too limited in scope; he offers no formal theory of motivation, and his theory of development is very sketchy.

1. Five-factor model (FFM) - a model demonstrating that the same five-factor structure emerges from various methods of measuring personality.

2. extraversion - the supertrait that differentiates people according to their tendency to be socially outgoing, assertive, confident,, and spontaneous and can be contrasted with inhibition, submissiveness, and timidity.

3. neuroticism (emotional instability) - the personality trait that includes a disposition toward emotional instability and unrealistic fears and can be contrasted with emotional stability (e.g., calm, composure, poise).

4. openness - a supertrait characterized by creativity, daring, interdependence, and originality and can be contrasted with isolation and rigidity.

5. agreeableness - a supertrait characterized by willing cooperation with others, friendliness, good-naturedness, kindness, politeness, and warmth and can be contrasted with antagonism, irritability, and rudeness.

6. conscientiousness - a supertrait characterized by the tendency to be goal-oriented and hard working,, cautious, responsible, serious, and thorough and can be contrasted with carelessness, laziness, and lack of direction.

7. intelligence - a supertrait, not always included in the five-factor models, that incorporates general intellectual capabilities, including creativity, curiosity, imaginitivensss as well as social awareness and skill, such as grace and polish.  Intelligence can be constrasted with the traits of simplicity, lack of reflection, and crudeness.

1. The five-factor model of the structure of personality has emerged as a candidate through which to integrate a variety of earlier dispositional/trait models.  The data now available make this set of broad traits look very much as though they represent universal domains of personality.  The five-factor model seems to offer the best promise of a consensus on the dimensions of personality that trait psychology has yet seen.  However, the number and type of supertraits will depend on the definitions and labels chosen and the kid of data relied on.  For example, intelligence will appear as a supertrait only if relevant measures have been included in the research on which the particular supertrait model is based; therfore, if intelligence is included, one might speak of a six-factor model.

2. The five-factor model has important similarities to elements of several other trait models.  For instance, supertraits are broad and pervasive in influence, much like temperaments.  Although there is quite a bit of overlap between supertraits and temperaments (e.g., emotional instability and neuroticism), some supertraits and temperaments are not perfectly fitted to each other.  For example, the supertrait of extraversion appears to include social dominance (e.g., assertiveness) which is not directly implied by the temperaments of activity level or sociability.  The relationship between supertraits and temperaments have raised questions to be answered by future research.

3. It appears that the five-factor model can be further reduced to two, super dimensions, socialization and personal growth.  Socialization includes the supertraits of agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability and reflects the extent to which people get along in social units.  Personal growth includes the supertraits of extraversion (surgency) and intelligence (curiosity) and reflects the extent to which people expose themselves to new things, thereby fostering growth.  Future research will tell if the five-factor model can be legitimately streamlined to include just two super dimensions.